A new tool to measure the personality trait of optimism is given to 50 nurses and repeated two weeks later; the two sets of scores correlate at r = 0.88. Which property has been assessed?

Stability by test-retest reliability

Internal consistency by split-half

Concurrent criterion-related validity

In planning an RCT, all else being equal, which change will increase the sample size required by a power analysis?

Expecting a smaller effect size

Accepting a power of 70% instead of 80%

Raising alpha from 0.05 to 0.10

Using a one-tailed instead of a two-tailed test

In a crossover trial comparing two mouthwashes for oral mucositis, each patient uses one product for a week and then the other. Why is a washout period placed between the two treatments?

To prevent carry-over of the first product's effect

To blind the investigator to the outcome

To randomise patients into two separate groups

To allow patients to drop out without penalty

Research process, designs and sampling

50 M.Sc Nursing Entrance (AIIMS, LBS, PGIMER, JIPMER) practice questions on Research process, designs and sampling, part of Nursing Research and Statistics. The first 25 are below; the first 5 with answers and explanations (tap Show answer after you have chosen), the rest in Learn with a free account.

Question 1 · Medium
A new tool to measure the personality trait of optimism is given to 50 nurses and repeated two weeks later; the two sets of scores correlate at r = 0.88. Which property has been assessed?
1. AEquivalence by parallel forms
2. BStability by test-retest reliability
3. CInternal consistency by split-half
4. DConcurrent criterion-related validity
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Answer: B · Stability by test-retest reliability
Test-retest reliability measures stability: the same tool is given to the same subjects twice, and the scores are correlated. It suits stable traits such as personality, not states that change quickly such as pain or anxiety. The interval must be long enough to avoid recall of answers, but short enough that the trait does not change. A coefficient above about 0.70-0.80 is usually acceptable.
- A: Parallel forms use two different versions of the tool.
- C: Split-half reliability uses one administration divided into two halves.
- D: Validity concerns whether the tool measures optimism, not whether its scores repeat.
Question 2 · Hard
In planning an RCT, all else being equal, which change will increase the sample size required by a power analysis?
1. AAccepting a power of 70% instead of 80%
2. BExpecting a smaller effect size
3. CRaising alpha from 0.05 to 0.10
4. DUsing a one-tailed instead of a two-tailed test
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Answer: B · Expecting a smaller effect size
Power analysis uses the significance level (alpha), the desired power (1 minus beta) and the expected effect size to estimate the sample needed. A smaller effect is harder to distinguish from chance, so many more subjects are needed; halving the effect size roughly quadruples the sample. Lowering power, raising alpha or using a one-tailed test all reduce the required sample. Effect size is usually taken from previous studies or a pilot.
- A: Lower power means a greater risk of a Type II error is accepted, so fewer subjects are needed.
- C: A larger alpha makes significance easier to reach and reduces the sample needed.
- D: A one-tailed test puts all of alpha in one tail and needs fewer subjects.
Question 3 · Medium
In a crossover trial comparing two mouthwashes for oral mucositis, each patient uses one product for a week and then the other. Why is a washout period placed between the two treatments?
1. ATo blind the investigator to the outcome
2. BTo randomise patients into two separate groups
3. CTo allow patients to drop out without penalty
4. DTo prevent carry-over of the first product's effect
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Answer: D · To prevent carry-over of the first product's effect
In a crossover design every subject receives both treatments, acting as his or her own control, which removes between-person variation and needs fewer subjects. If the first treatment still acts when the second starts, its carry-over effect is wrongly credited to the second. A washout period long enough for the first effect to fade prevents this. Crossover designs suit stable, chronic conditions, not conditions that are cured by the first treatment.
- A: Blinding is achieved by identical-looking products, not by a gap between treatments.
- B: Randomisation decides the order of treatments, but the washout does not create separate groups.
- C: Participants may withdraw at any time; a washout period has nothing to do with this right.
Question 4 · Medium
A tool asks student nurses to rate the concept 'night duty' on seven-point scales between pairs such as good-bad, safe-dangerous and pleasant-unpleasant. This is a:
1. AVisual analogue scale
2. BQ-sort technique
3. CLikert summated rating scale
4. DSemantic differential scale
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Answer: D · Semantic differential scale
The semantic differential, developed by Osgood, measures the meaning of a concept through bipolar adjective pairs rated on (usually) seven-point scales. Scores are often grouped into evaluation (good-bad), potency (strong-weak) and activity (active-passive). It is useful for attitudes towards a concept. A Likert scale, by contrast, uses statements with agree-disagree responses.
- A: A VAS is a single continuous line marked by the respondent.
- B: In a Q-sort, respondents sort cards into piles along a continuum.
- C: A Likert scale rates agreement with statements, not bipolar adjective pairs.
Question 5 · Hard
A survey aims to estimate the prevalence of hypertension among nurses. A previous study found 30%. Using 95% confidence (Z = 1.96) and an absolute precision of 5%, what is the minimum sample size?
1. A323
2. B461
3. C3,585
4. D165
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Answer: A · 323
For a proportion, n = Z squared x p x q / d squared. Here p = 0.30, q = 0.70 and d = 0.05, so n = 3.8416 x 0.21 / 0.0025 = 322.7, which is rounded up to 323. Rounding is always upward, and allowance for non-response is added afterwards. Using relative instead of absolute precision greatly increases the sample.
- B: 461 comes from leaving out q (3.8416 x 0.30 / 0.0025).
- C: 3,585 comes from using 5% of 30% (d = 0.015) as relative precision.
- D: 165 comes from using Z = 1.96 without squaring it.
Question 6 · Hard
A new anxiety scale gives significantly higher scores to patients awaiting cardiac surgery than to healthy visitors, as theory predicts. What kind of evidence is this?
1. AConstruct validity by the known-groups technique
2. BInter-rater reliability between two observers
3. CContent validity by an expert panel review
4. DPredictive validity against future outcomes
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 7 · Easy
The main aim of grounded theory research is to:
1. ATest a hypothesis derived from an existing theory
2. BDescribe the lived experience of a phenomenon
3. CGenerate a theory from data about a social process
4. DStudy the culture and customs of a social group
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 8 · Hard
Six experts rate an item of a new tool for relevance on a 4-point scale; five rate it 3 or 4 and one rates it 2. What is the item-level content validity index (I-CVI), and is the item acceptable by the usual criterion for six or more experts?
1. A0.67; unacceptable, as it is below 0.78
2. B0.83; unacceptable, as it is below 0.90
3. C1.00; acceptable, as no one rated it 1
4. D0.83; acceptable, as it is at least 0.78
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 9 · Medium
In a study of a breastfeeding education programme, the researcher enrols only primigravidae so that previous breastfeeding experience cannot affect the outcome. This method of controlling an extraneous variable is:
1. AHomogeneity
2. BMatching
3. CRandomisation
4. DBlocking
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 10 · Easy
The international code that first stated that 'voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential', framed after the trials of Nazi doctors, is the:
1. ANuremberg Code
2. BDeclaration of Geneva
3. CDeclaration of Helsinki
4. DBelmont Report
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 11 · Easy
Under the Belmont Report, the principle requiring that the burdens and benefits of research be shared fairly, so that vulnerable groups are not chosen merely because they are easy to recruit, is:
1. AJustice
2. BNon-maleficence
3. CBeneficence
4. DRespect for persons
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 12 · Hard
A nurse historian studying nursing in Travancore in the 1940s finds a hospital diary said to be written by a matron of that time. She checks the paper, ink and handwriting against other records of the period. What is she assessing?
1. AInter-rater reliability of the data coding
2. BConstruct validity of the historical source
3. CExternal criticism, the authenticity of the document
4. DInternal criticism, the accuracy of the content
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 13 · Medium
Before interviewing mothers who have lost a newborn, a phenomenologist who is herself a bereaved mother writes down and sets aside her own beliefs about grief. This process is called:
1. AIntuiting
2. BReflecting
3. CDebriefing
4. DBracketing
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 14 · Medium
An investigator needs 100 nurses: 60 women and 40 men, to reflect the workforce. She approaches nurses in the canteen until each number is filled. This method is:
1. ASystematic random sampling
2. BStratified random sampling
3. CSnowball sampling
4. DQuota sampling
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 15 · Hard
A researcher selects the 30 students with the lowest scores on a medication-calculation test for a remedial programme. Their mean score rises from 42% to 58% on retest, with no control group. Which threat most weakens the claim that the programme caused the rise?
1. AStatistical regression toward the mean
2. BExperimental mortality of the subjects
3. CDiffusion of treatment to other students
4. DReactivity caused by the Hawthorne effect
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 16 · Medium
In a survey on substance use among nursing students, questionnaires carry no names or codes, so even the researcher cannot link any answer to a student. This protects the participants by:
1. AConfidentiality
2. BDebriefing
3. CAnonymity
4. DInformed consent
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 17 · Medium
A nurse researcher lives in a tribal village for eight months, takes part in daily life and records how residents understand illness in their own terms. The approach and the perspective sought are:
1. AEthnography, seeking the emic (insider) view
2. BPhenomenology, seeking the etic (outsider) view
3. CGrounded theory, seeking the emic (insider) view
4. DEthnography, seeking the etic (outsider) view
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 18 · Medium
After analysing interviews with patients on haemodialysis, the researcher returns the summary of themes to the participants to check whether it reflects their experiences. This strategy mainly strengthens the study's:
1. ADependability
2. BTransferability
3. CConfirmability
4. DCredibility
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 19 · Easy
Research in which nurses and the people affected work together through repeated cycles of planning, acting, observing and reflecting to solve a practical problem is called:
1. AEvaluation research
2. BAction research
3. CHistorical research
4. DMethodological research
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 20 · Medium
A survey of 300 adults shows that those who sleep fewer hours have higher BMI (r = -0.45, p < 0.01). Which conclusion is justified by this design?
1. AShort sleep causes weight gain in adults
2. BSleep explains 45% of the variation in BMI
3. CWeight loss will lengthen sleep in obese adults
4. DSleep duration and BMI are inversely associated
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 21 · Hard
In a trial of a weight-reduction programme, 40% of the intervention group and 8% of the control group drop out before the final weighing, mostly those gaining weight. Which threat is most likely to bias the comparison?
1. AInstrumentation change
2. BDifferential attrition (mortality)
3. CPretest sensitisation
4. DHistory from outside events
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 22 · Medium
While searching PubMed for a review, a nurse combines the terms 'pressure ulcer' AND 'repositioning'. Compared with searching 'pressure ulcer' alone, this search will:
1. ARetrieve records on ulcers without repositioning
2. BRetrieve the same records sorted by relevance
3. CRetrieve more records on either topic
4. DRetrieve fewer, more specific records
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 23 · Medium
A qualitative report gives a detailed account of the setting, the participants and the context of care so that readers can judge whether the findings apply to their own wards. This addresses:
1. AAuthenticity
2. BTransferability
3. CCredibility
4. DDependability
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 24 · Easy
A study that uses statistical methods to combine the results of several independent studies on the same question into one pooled estimate is a:
1. ANarrative review
2. BMetasynthesis
3. CMeta-analysis
4. DSecondary analysis
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account
Question 25 · Medium
In an RCT of a home-visit programme, 20 patients randomised to the intervention never received any visit. Under intention-to-treat analysis, these 20 patients are:
1. AAnalysed in the intervention group as randomised
2. BReplaced by new patients from the waiting list
3. CMoved to the control group for the analysis
4. DRemoved from the analysis as protocol violators
Answer and explanation in LearnFree account

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Research process, designs and sampling

A new tool to measure the personality trait of optimism is given to 50 nurses and repeated two weeks later; the two sets of scores correlate at r = 0.88. Which property has been assessed?

In planning an RCT, all else being equal, which change will increase the sample size required by a power analysis?

In a crossover trial comparing two mouthwashes for oral mucositis, each patient uses one product for a week and then the other. Why is a washout period placed between the two treatments?

A tool asks student nurses to rate the concept 'night duty' on seven-point scales between pairs such as good-bad, safe-dangerous and pleasant-unpleasant. This is a:

A survey aims to estimate the prevalence of hypertension among nurses. A previous study found 30%. Using 95% confidence (Z = 1.96) and an absolute precision of 5%, what is the minimum sample size?

A new anxiety scale gives significantly higher scores to patients awaiting cardiac surgery than to healthy visitors, as theory predicts. What kind of evidence is this?

The main aim of grounded theory research is to:

Six experts rate an item of a new tool for relevance on a 4-point scale; five rate it 3 or 4 and one rates it 2. What is the item-level content validity index (I-CVI), and is the item acceptable by the usual criterion for six or more experts?

In a study of a breastfeeding education programme, the researcher enrols only primigravidae so that previous breastfeeding experience cannot affect the outcome. This method of controlling an extraneous variable is:

The international code that first stated that 'voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential', framed after the trials of Nazi doctors, is the:

Under the Belmont Report, the principle requiring that the burdens and benefits of research be shared fairly, so that vulnerable groups are not chosen merely because they are easy to recruit, is:

A nurse historian studying nursing in Travancore in the 1940s finds a hospital diary said to be written by a matron of that time. She checks the paper, ink and handwriting against other records of the period. What is she assessing?

Before interviewing mothers who have lost a newborn, a phenomenologist who is herself a bereaved mother writes down and sets aside her own beliefs about grief. This process is called:

An investigator needs 100 nurses: 60 women and 40 men, to reflect the workforce. She approaches nurses in the canteen until each number is filled. This method is:

A researcher selects the 30 students with the lowest scores on a medication-calculation test for a remedial programme. Their mean score rises from 42% to 58% on retest, with no control group. Which threat most weakens the claim that the programme caused the rise?

In a survey on substance use among nursing students, questionnaires carry no names or codes, so even the researcher cannot link any answer to a student. This protects the participants by:

A nurse researcher lives in a tribal village for eight months, takes part in daily life and records how residents understand illness in their own terms. The approach and the perspective sought are:

After analysing interviews with patients on haemodialysis, the researcher returns the summary of themes to the participants to check whether it reflects their experiences. This strategy mainly strengthens the study's:

Research in which nurses and the people affected work together through repeated cycles of planning, acting, observing and reflecting to solve a practical problem is called:

A survey of 300 adults shows that those who sleep fewer hours have higher BMI (r = -0.45, p < 0.01). Which conclusion is justified by this design?

In a trial of a weight-reduction programme, 40% of the intervention group and 8% of the control group drop out before the final weighing, mostly those gaining weight. Which threat is most likely to bias the comparison?

While searching PubMed for a review, a nurse combines the terms 'pressure ulcer' AND 'repositioning'. Compared with searching 'pressure ulcer' alone, this search will:

A qualitative report gives a detailed account of the setting, the participants and the context of care so that readers can judge whether the findings apply to their own wards. This addresses:

A study that uses statistical methods to combine the results of several independent studies on the same question into one pooled estimate is a:

In an RCT of a home-visit programme, 20 patients randomised to the intervention never received any visit. Under intention-to-treat analysis, these 20 patients are: